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How Does Extreme Weather Affect My Water and Wastewater System?

“We had almost a complete [system] failure in the last three to five years. And (...) in October of last year [2022] (...), we had a major deep freeze and so the water system was frozen. And (...) we had just gotten down to the point of near collapse.”

County Government Official in Martin County


What is in this section?


Floods, droughts, heatwaves, deep freezes, severe thunderstorms, wind and ice storms are becoming more frequent and severe. For a water system that is already old and in need of repair, like ours in Martin County, these extreme events can push it to a breaking point. Understanding how extreme weather threatens small community water systems can help them be better prepared for future water emergencies.


Why is Martin County at risk?


The existing water and wastewater challenges in Martin County, including old pipes and frequent leaks, are made worse by increasingly frequent and severe weather incidents and the region’s unique landscape.



Mountain terrain: When heavy storms hit, they can get “locked” into the ridges, dumping huge amounts of rain in one place. This water collects in the narrow “hollers,” where many of Martin County’s homes are.


Post-industrial landscapes: Past timbering and surface mining have removed trees that normally soak up rain and hold the soil in place. This has increased the risk of flooding and soil erosion facing Martin County communities.


Did you know that rural Appalachian community water systems, including those of Martin County, are already being hit hard by extreme weather events? The catastrophic flooding that hit Eastern Kentucky in late July 2022 and two separate incidents in February and April 2025 are stark, well-documented examples of how extreme weather events can devastate an already stressed regional water system, with impacts that are still being felt years later. 


Sources:


Flooding : Overwhelming our Water System


Flooding can cause widespread devastation and damages to water infrastructure and can make their repair difficult, leaving residents severely impacted, without clean water and water systems. 


We experienced this widespread devastation in the one-in-1,000 year flood of July 2022, when Eastern Kentucky received nearly 12 inches of rain over five days, with 8 inches pouring down in just 24 hours. Three wastewater treatment plants became unable to operate, and several others were significantly damaged due to flooding, mudslides, rockslides, and water and power outages. As a result, 18,000 households lost access to water, while another 45,600 were placed under boil water advisories. The February 2025 catastrophic flooding event also displaced hundreds of residents whose homes were damaged, leaving 14,000 residents without power and multiple wastewater systems inoperable.


Flooding events may damage water and wastewater systems in expected and unexpected ways. 


Power Loss

Storms with high winds or extreme precipitation can damage power lines, roofs, and trees, knock out power, and shut down water treatment plants and pumps.

Contamination

Floodwater or stormwater can overwhelm water treatment plants, forcing untreated water into our rivers and streams. This then compromises the quality of our drinking water sources.

Well Contamination

 Flooding poses a particular risk to private wells. Floodwater can seep into wells, carrying bacteria as well as chemicals used in the past by the coal industry.

Landslides and Sludge Slurries

In areas with a history of mining, saturated ground can lead to landslides and sludge slurries, which can break or bury water and wastewater pipes and pollute waterways. Landslides and sludge slurries also threaten other infrastructure, like roads, schools, gas lines, electrical lines, and poles that carry power lines.

Storm Water Overflow


Sources on flooding:

Sources on excessive rainwater and stormwater:


Drought: When the Water Runs Low


Even in water-rich Kentucky, drought is a real threat. We had three severe drought periods in the last 30 years (1999-2000, 2007-2008, and 2012).


The southeastern U.S. is more drought prone than other parts of the eastern U.S. due to higher rates of evapotranspiration. Shifting precipitation patterns due to climate change is expected to lead to increased overall precipitation in Central Appalachia, with more intense and concentrated rainfall events in the spring, and less rainfall in the summer and fall. 


Kentucky is also experiencing more “flash droughts,” where drought conditions start rapidly in just a few weeks. In 2019, many counties in Kentucky shifted from no drought conditions to extreme drought within 2 months. These “flash droughts” combined with the increased overall precipitation in Central Appalachia, and the annual temperature increases (projected to increase by 8 degrees Fahrenheit by the end of the century in Central Appalachia), led to a “weather whiplash” between very wet and very dry conditions, posing a series of new challenges to our water systems. 


Drought can unevenly affect mountain areas, as there are “microclimates” throughout the mountains that vary depending on exposure to sunlight, type of soil, rockiness, and density of the forest cover. Similarly, rural water systems can be affected in several ways;

Low Supply

One of the most widely felt effects of drought on Martin County’s water system is the decline of water quantity, as streams and wells run low. Low water volume stresses pumps and can lead to water outages. When the Crum Reservoir runs low, more water needs to be pumped from the Tug Fork River. For several years, the pumps have been broken and new ones rented at a high cost. The diesel required to run the pumps can cost more than the rent each month.

More Boil Water Advisories

Low water pressure in the pipes can allow contaminants to get in, forcing the Water District to issue Boil Water Advisories. The water outages caused by the failure of the pump bringing water from the Tug Fork River in 2024-25 led to back-to-back boil water advisories and required pumping water from alternate sources.

Concentrated Pollution

With less water to dilute them, pollutants in our water sources become more concentrated.



Drought can also impact water quality in other negative ways. For example, increased groundwater pumping from wells during a drought can draw in shallow or otherwise contaminated groundwater from surrounding areas, which can mix with and degrade the deeper aquifers typically used for public drinking water supply. 


 The severity of the impacts caused by drought is measured by a scale. The U.S. Drought Monitor program classifies drought into 5 categories ranging from D0 (abnormally dry) to D4 (exceptional drought). 

Kentucky aligns its official Drought Mitigation and Response Plan with this scale: 


Level 1-3 Drought

Escalating stages of observed and expected impacts, from official designation of a prolonged dry period as a ‘Drought’ (Level 1), to observed or widespread and severe impacts threatening emergencies (Level 2 and Level 3). 

Water Shortage Watch

Indicates a potential for water shortages to develop. The watch is intended to encourage increased awareness by water supply managers in an area and help local governments communicate the severity of a drought situation to affected water customers.

Water Shortage Warning

Indicates that a critical water shortage is imminent. A warning may also be issued for an area in which one or more systems have entered the emergency phase of a local water shortage response plan.


 In 2024, a ”Level 1 Drought” was declared for the whole state of Kentucky because of the observed impacts on soil moisture, agricultural water needs, and the increased wildfire risk across the state. In late 2025, about two thirds of the Martin County area is declared as “Abnormally Dry” (D0).

Sources:


Snapshot of the U.S. Drought Monitor Map [Oct 30, 2025]. The U.S. Drought Monitor Map is updated weekly. To ensure you are using the most recent official data from the National Drought Mitigation Center, which partners with NOAA and the USDA to produce these maps, visit this link: https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/CurrentMap/StateDroughtMonitor.aspx?fips_21159.
Snapshot of the U.S. Drought Monitor Map [Oct 30, 2025]. The U.S. Drought Monitor Map is updated weekly. To ensure you are using the most recent official data from the National Drought Mitigation Center, which partners with NOAA and the USDA to produce these maps, visit this link: https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/CurrentMap/StateDroughtMonitor.aspx?fips_21159.

Did you know that drought does not happen overnight? The Kentucky Drought Mitigation and Response Plan explains that there is often a delay between the last good rainfall and when water levels start to drop. By the time we notice lower streams, reservoirs, or wells, the ground may already be parched, and people, wildlife, and plants may be feeling the stress. To track these changes and their impacts, scientists classify drought into several types. 


Did you know that drought is not just the lack of rain? Drought is defined by its impact. The National Drought Mitigation Center categorizes drought into five types:

  • Meteorological: when there is a lack of precipitation and dry weather conditions dominate an area.

  • Hydrological: when water supplies in streams, reservoirs and wells run low.

  • Agricultural: when soil moisture is too low for crops to survive.

  • Socioeconomic: when water shortages begin to affect the supply and demand of goods and services.

  • Ecological: when natural ecosystems are stressed or damaged by dry conditions.

For an interactive map that displays current drought conditions and water shortage declarations issued by the Commonwealth of Kentucky on its website, see Kentucky Drought and Climate Conditions, which has been developed by the Kentucky Division of Water.


Ice Storms and Deep Freezes: A Frozen System


We know all too well how a deep freeze can cause pipes to burst in our homes. The same thing happens to the larger water mains that serve our community. 


Freezes can hurt our water and wastewater systems in several ways:

Frozen and Burst Pipes

Low temperatures can freeze water in pipes causing those pipes to burst. This can cause damage to water supply and sanitation systems, cutting off access for the people served by those systems.

Power Outages

 Ice storms often cause power outages, impacting water treatment plants, especially if they do not have an adequate backup generator.

Water Outages

Extreme freezing temperatures can result in water outages. This is what Martin County experienced in 2024. Ice and slush can also block intake valves for systems that use surface water. 

Contamination Risk

When water pipes are ruptured, contamination can occur through the break. Systems can also experience pressure loss, which in turn puts the distribution system at risk of contamination, making water unsafe. 


Although climate change is reducing the overall number of cold days in the United States, it is also driving more extreme shifts in temperature. This means more severe cold events in mid-latitude regions of the Northern Hemisphere (including Central Appalachia) are expected to occur by the end of this century. 


Did you know that the National Climate Assessment found that the southeastern U.S. experienced 3 additional days of cold extremes (less than 32 degrees Fahrenheit) between 2002-2021 compared to 1901-1960? It may seem like a contradiction for global warming to bring more extreme cold. However, changes in the Arctic due to climate change are likely an important driver of a chain of events that involve “stratospheric polar vortex disruption,” which ultimately can result in extreme cold events in regions like Central Appalachia.

Sources:



How do deep freezes impact small water systems?


Small water systems, such as the one serving Martin County, often face greater challenges coming back online after being disrupted by extreme cold. Many factors compound to create this outcome: aging water and wastewater infrastructure, insufficient staff, and fewer financial resources due to a limited customer base. 


The 2024 extreme freezing temperatures shut down the system for only 12 hours, but some customers experienced water outages for up to two weeks, depending on where they were located. This intensified already existing water infrastructure and water affordability challenges in the county. Again, in January of 2025, much of Kentucky faced extreme cold temperatures – threatening power outages. And then in February, Kentucky communities faced cold temperatures and a snowstorm immediately following severe flooding, complicating recovery efforts. Both cold temperature events in early 2025 were connected to the polar vortex.


Learn how to shut off your water at the main valve in case a pipe bursts in your home. In a deep freeze, let a faucet drip slowly to keep water moving in your pipes.


You and your community can stay informed about the risks of ice storms and other natural hazards by exploring FEMA's National Risk Index Map.


Extreme Heat: Straining Quality and Supply


The U.S. is experiencing more frequent, longer, and more powerful extreme heat events, or heatwaves, generally defined as a period of abnormally hot weather lasting between 2 days to months. 


Did you know that the U.S. Department of Homeland Security broadly defines extreme heat as a minimum of 2 to 3 days of temperatures of approximately 90 degrees Fahrenheit? 



The increase in intensity and frequency of extreme heat is directly tied to climate change. Average annual air temperatures have risen in the continental United States by almost 2.5 degrees Fahrenheit since 1970. The year 2024 was the hottest ever recorded, capping off a streak in which each of the past 10 years (2015-2024) ranked as the hottest 10 years in nearly two centuries of record-keeping.


Across the nation, the heatwave season has extended from around 40 days to approximately 70 days, with the average number of heatwaves doubling since the 1980s. Extreme heat events are expected to continue increasing in magnitude and frequency every decade.


Did you know that in Central Appalachia, there are projected to be 20-30 more days considered to be extremely hot (greater than 95 degrees Fahrenheit) and multi-day heatwaves are expected to increase by 3 to 6 days by the end of the century?

How does extreme heat strain rural water systems?


Extreme heat events impact rural water systems and water quality in several ways: 

Algal Blooms

Extreme heat can cause toxic algal blooms (or harmful algal blooms (HABs) to grow in lakes and reservoirs, endangering drinking water quality and making it unsafe for people to come into contact with water bodies for recreation.

Reduced Snowfall and Snowpack

Mountain snowpack is an important natural water reservoir, recharging water systems as it lays on the ground and seeps in gradually, leading to less runoff. While this is more noticeable in areas of the western U.S. where high elevations mean snow stays around longer, this gradual melting of snow also has an impact on better water retention in general. In Central Appalachia specifically, winter snowfall is expected to decline by 20-50% by the end of the century. This projected decline in snowfall and snowpack will not only diminish overall water availability, but also shifts the timing of runoff, creating greater challenges for rural water systems that rely on consistent, predictable flows to meet community needs.

Higher Water Demand

Extreme heat is often accompanied by drought, and can also increase demand for water, as –during a heatwave– everyone uses more water for drinking, cooling, and gardening. This can overwhelm the system, worsening water sufficiency problems created by long periods of drought.

Reduced Water Quality and Availability of Groundwater Supply

Reduced snowfall and snowpack, coupled with long dry periods, means less surface water filling streams and rivers, leading to poor water quality as a result of low volumes of water and water shortages.

Health Risks

Extreme heat is dangerous for our health, especially for the elderly, young children, people with pre-existing health problems, or pregnant women, and those without access to air conditioning or water. For example, individuals experiencing homelessness face heightened risks of dehydration or heat-related illnesses due to the lack of reliable water access and shelter. 


When coupled with long histories of environmental and economic injustices, extreme heat waves can cause disproportionate health impacts to regions and populations already experiencing water inequalities.

Sources:



Did you know the National Weather Service provides guidance to the public on how to protect yourself during a heat wave? Also, the Environmental Protection Agency has extreme heat resources specifically geared towards water and wastewater utilities, like their extreme heat incident action checklist.

See also, “What if the water in a lake or reservoir looks green or blue?” in this Toolkit.


Wildfires: A Growing Threat to Water Quality


The risk of wildfire is increasing in size, scale, and frequency in the U.S. due to a combination of historical fire-suppression practices, development in high fire risk areas, and climate-related factors. These factors include decreasing snowpack and snowmelt; changing temperatures and precipitation patterns; more severe, hot, and persistent droughts; and increasing wind speeds. Drought, heat and high winds combine to increase the flammability of plant life, thus increasing wildfire danger. 

In the southeastern U.S., wildfires are expected to significantly impact natural systems in the future. On average, the annual area expected to be burned by lightning-ignited wildfire is projected to increase by a minimum of 30% by 2060. 

Did you know that one major climate change driver is longer warm seasons that allow bark beetles to thrive and increase tree mortality in forests, which then become tinder for wildfires?


How can wildfires hurt our water and wastewater systems?


Wildfires can have adverse and severe impacts on water quality and on community water systems:

Damaged Infrastructure

A wildfire can melt and rupture water pipes and meters. It can also damage water intake systems or water treatment systems.

Polluted Water Sources

Wildfires can make drinking water unsafe. After a fire, the burned ground cannot absorb rain. Ashes, sediment, and pollutants wash into streams and reservoirs, contaminating water sources and groundwater. Solids, nutrients, and heavy metals become more concentrated in affected water bodies. Potentially harmful algae blooms can also occur. Also, damaged pipes and pressure loss can lead to toxic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) entering the water system. These contaminants can affect surface water intakes, wells and springs located downstream of fire-impacted forested land.

Sources:

Did you know that during fall 2016, a combination of high temperatures, increased accumulation of plant material on the forest floors, and a four-month drought led to 21 wildfires in Southern Appalachia (NC, SC, GA, and TN)? These wildfires negatively impacted water quality in the region by increasing suspended solids and nitrates in the waters of burned watersheds.



How does extreme weather interact with water pollution?


Extreme weather does not only damage our water and wastewater systems. It makes existing water pollution problems more dangerous for our health and the environment. Here’s how:

Floods and Wildfires Wash Pollution In

Floodwaters can carry chemicals, ash from wildfires, and waste from mines and septic systems directly into our rivers and streams, adding toxic chemicals into the water supply of our drinking water.

Droughts Concentrate the Problem 

With less water available during droughts, the concentration of pollutants in water supplies increases. With the evaporation of water in extreme heat events, drought, and wildfires, chemicals already in the water supply may also become more concentrated. Changes in timing of rainfall paired with warmer temperatures can alter runoff patterns resulting in changes in chemical and pollutant levels in water bodies.

Heat Fuels Harmful Growth

Raised surface water temperatures from extreme heat and drought may cause higher water temperatures that kill aquatic species and contribute to algal blooms, which further decrease available oxygen in the water.

Sources:


In short, extreme weather events act as “threat multipliers,” intensifying existing water pollution or water quality challenges and creating a serious set of health risks for our ecosystems, our families and our communities. The coupling of water pollution with extreme weather events, or other slow occurring water disasters can have other consequences too, like the disruption of food chains. The combined impacts of climate change and water pollution are yet to be fully understood.  


For Further Reading on This Section:


On what stresses our water? Missouri Department of Natural Resources: https://dnr.mo.gov/water/hows-water/pollutants-sources/water-stressors


On the history of the Clean Water Act: https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/history-clean-water-act

On non-point source pollution: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_pollution/welcome.html


On water health: https://eec.ky.gov/Environmental-Protection/Water/Reports/Reports/KentuckysWaterHealthGuide.pdf


On different types of water pollution: https://healingwaters.org/different-types-of-water-pollution/


https://atlas-scientific.com/blog/types-of-water-pollution/


On water pollution from coal: https://www.gem.wiki/Water_pollution_from_coal#cite_ref-rachel_5-0


https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412009000543?casa_token=3KSqJBKbnmMAAAAA:g_kOKxi1bVIPGDf7ZN_OhK6Sibr02du8YiauK6jW-uOO9sY618PXT2YkzEPJQMqc4Gcp_g-KSQ


https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/58138


“Characteristics and Pollution Involved in Coal Mining”, https://watermanaustralia.com/characteristics-and-pollution-involved-in-coal-mining/


https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306261920304888

Banner photo sourced from https://www.powermag.com/another-kentucky-coal-plant-shutting-down/

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