The water abundance of the Appalachian Mountains makes them a “water tower” for millions of people downstream. Yet, Central Appalachian counties are home to numerous communities facing a lack of household access to water and wastewater services, as many are without complete plumbing. Central Appalachian communities are also home to one of the highest rates of the Safe Drinking Water Act violations, indicating poor water quality.

Harlan County's water infrastructure, for the most part, is old, and in desperate need of repair. Extra water pressure is needed to force water upslope across mountains, and then pressure must be reduced to avoid blowing out residential water systems and water meters. Aging infrastructure coupled with water pressure issues can also cause line breaks and water leaks. Water pollution related to the long history of deep mining in Harlan County, as well as stressors related to the governance of water systems (e.g. long-term lack of funding and access to funding opportunities, increasing water costs for households (water burden) and distrust towards water governance agencies), make these water systems even more fragile, worsening ongoing distrust of tap water. Wastewater systems are often overwhelmed by stormwater due to old cracked clay pipes, causing them to have to treat more water than they were designed for. Because mountainous terrain and rocky or compacted soils are not suitable for septic systems, some residents outside of areas where wastewater services may resort to straight-piping their sewage, which pollutes surface water. 

Besides water pollution, another family of stressors is related to the climate patterns of the region. High precipitation rates are not new in Central Appalachia. The region’s mountainous terrain contributes to thunderstorm systems that ‘lock’ into the ridges and cannot pass over, thus dumping extra rain on one side while other sides remain dry. These systems are known to produce some of the largest rainfall accumulations in the world! Rainfall collects in the narrow valleys, or “hollers” (hollows) where many communities and households are located. However, the legacies of extractive industries have removed some natural protections that could help reduce flood risk. Timbering and surface mining has removed trees that normally absorb rain through their roots and reduce erosion. Surface mining has contributed to silting up rivers and streams, reducing their capacity to carry water away. 

It is no wonder that Central Appalachia is home to numerous communities that are considered highly sensitive to climate change impacts, including overall increases in precipitation rates, more frequent flooding,  rising temperatures, and more frequent dry days (resulting in more repeated periods of intense rain with long dry spells between events). These extreme weather events are already felt in the Appalachian region and are expected to further increase in the near future. These climate-related stressors are further stressing the already stressed rural Appalachian community water systems, including those of Harlan County.  

Did you know that stressors do not act in isolation? For example, water pollution related to long legacies of extractive industries interacts with climate change impacts (such as an increase in flooding events). Water pollution also interacts with challenges related to water governance issues (for example, chronic underfunding and lack of trust in water and water managers). By interacting with each other, these stressors are increasing each other’s effect on water systems and can cause multiplied harm to the surrounding animal and plant life, as well as to human communities. 

TIP: A good source for finding open-access, interactive tools on the web that can give you information on climate change, water, equity, and environmental justice is the Story Map (“Tools for climate change, water, and environmental justice”) compiled by the Rural Community Assistance Partnership, Inc. Make sure you take a good look at EPA’s EJ Screen Tool - a mapping and screening tool that provides open-access data on environmental and socio-economic indicators to highlight places that have higher environmental burdens. 

Sources

Pacific Institute. 2023. “Climate Change and Flooding in Central Appalachia.” Issue Brief. 

Betsy Taylor, Shannon McNeeley, Maria Gaglia-Bareli, Laura Landes, Lena Schlichting, Deborah Thompson, Rachel Will, 2024. Water and Climate Equity in Rural Water Systems in the United States, Pacific Institute, Oakland, California.

Water pollution is a problem because it poses a serious threat to the health of all living beings. It is no wonder that the lack of adequate water sanitation is among the leading causes of mortality in several countries around the world. 

Water pollutants from surface or underground mining, such as heavy metals (arsenic, lead, etc.), acid mine drainage, and runoff from acidic water, or from mountaintop removal and coal slurries can drastically change the pH of water, leading to fish and wildlife death. People or animals drinking contaminated water can get ill, either instantly or in the long run. Some of the common human diseases immediately created are diarrhea, or even cholera, while some of the ones created little by little are skin diseases, oral decay, or even neurological disorders and cancer. 

The effects of water pollution on human and environmental health vary depending on the types, sources, and scale of water pollution. For example, chemical pollution coming from an oil or coal slurry spillage, can have quite different effects from biological pollution coming from failed wastewater and septic systems (e.g. excessive amounts of nutrients and harmful microbes). Or, pollution coming from industrial activities (e.g. factories and power plants) can have quite different effects from pollution caused by runoff and acid rain in areas where a factory -for example- is releasing carbon monoxide, heavy metals, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, or “particulate matter” (small particles), and can be discharging wastewater containing harmful chemical pollutants) in the surrounding water bodies (rivers, laces, etc). affecting both air, soil and water. 

The effects of water pollution also depend on access to knowledge, and the actual funding and available technology for dealing with water pollution. Access to resources, such as funding and technology, is not the same for all water systems in the U.S.

Water pollutants also interact with temperature, precipitation, and relative salt content, making water more toxic, or distributing it into wider regions and affecting more and more people, animals, and plants. Extreme weather events, such as prolonged drought, can increase the toxicity of contaminants, while flooding can distribute contaminants (e.g. heavy metals, or ‘forever - chemicals’) into wider regions, increasing the rates of water pollution.

Did you know that regulatory agencies charged with protecting the environment and ensuring clean and safe water, identify two main categories of pollution? These are; point-source pollution (think the factory, or the oil spill) and nonpoint-source pollution (think runoff and acid rain). 

Sources 

Bullington D. (2024). "An Elementary Look at Water Pollution". In Drinking Water. RCAP, June 24. 

Najeeb S. (2021), "Ten Major Harmful Effects of Water Pollution on Human Health". In Envirocivil, Oct. 13. 

National Geographic Education. “Point Source and Nonpoint Sources of Pollution”. 

There are many types of water pollution depending on which part of the water body is polluted (underground, or surface water), or what has caused (or is causing) water pollution. Water pollutants can be organic or inorganic, highly or less toxic, and can contaminate underground or surface water. They can persist and be difficult to treat or can be short-lived and easy to treat, given the available technology. In Harlan County, the most commonly found types of water pollution –in terms of which part of the water body is polluted and what is causing water pollution– are;

Groundwater pollution: A key source of groundwater pollution comes from industrial activities, such as coal mining and industrial agriculture. Often, water pollution is caused by abandoned industrial equipment leaching slowly into the groundwater, or by the overuse of fertilizers and pesticides applied to farmland. Groundwater pollution can also be caused by waste from landfills,  and untreated waste from septic tanks and sewage systems. Once contaminated, groundwater can be difficult or impossible to remediate. Harlan County has areas with moderate to high exposure to groundwater pollution. 

Surface water pollution: Surface streams, the major source of Kentucky's water supply, are primarily sustained by groundwater discharge from adjacent aquifers. Surface water is vulnerable to contamination when the surface of land is contaminated due to various human activities. Surface water pollution can occur persistently (e.g. industries dumping waste directly or indirectly into waterways), but can also occur suddenly, as an accident. Surface water pollution also occurs as a result of extreme weather events, such as flooding, as excessive amounts of water pick up debris, chemicals, or other water contaminants from surface activities and pour them into waterways. 

Both surface and underground water bodies of Harlan County face chemical pollution, microbiological and suspended matter pollution, oxygen depletion and thermal pollution. 

Even though water contamination has become a major environmental issue for more than thirty years now, there is surprisingly little information available on groundwater as well as surface water quality. The lack of information regarding surface and groundwater makes it harder for community members to understand “what is in their water” especially when it comes to certain source water or groundwater that residents and water systems depend on. This lack of information can also impact certain policies or plans around how to help certain communities.  A case in point is the  ‘forever chemicals’, which have been around for too long. Yet, their dire effects are only recently realized (and much more data collection and research remains to be done). As a result, until recently, EPA was not regulating any of these ‘forever chemicals’. 

See also, What are the 'forever chemicals' and why are they relevant to drinking water and wastewater systems?

Sources

Betsy Taylor, Shannon McNeeley, Maria Gaglia-Bareli, Laura Landes, Lena Schlichting, Deborah Thompson, Rachel Will, 2024. Water and Climate Equity in Rural Water Systems in the United States, Pacific Institute, Oakland, California.

Atlas Scientific, “Types of Water Pollution”, June 28, 2022. 

Carey D. and Stickney J.F. (2005). “Groundwater Resources of Harlan County, Kentucky”. In Cobb J.C., Ground-Water Resources in Kentucky.  County Report 48, Series XII. University of Kentucky and Kentucky Geological Survey. 

Across the U.S., there are many different contaminants present in water systems. It is important to distinguish between the different types of water pollution, because if sanitation measures are to be effective, they need to be tailored to the specific contaminants and  the source or sources of water pollution associated with them. 

To understand these specific pollution risks facing Harlan County’s water sources, it is important to take into account the development pathway of this county and in the Appalachian region;  the historical pathway that led to what is current. Some surface activities have been contaminating soil and water with particular water pollutants. Scientific research is already associating specific pollutants with specific health and environmental risks, which will need to be taken into account when planning for sanitation measures.

In regulatory policies and sanitation measures, it is also crucial to be tailored to the funding opportunities and treatment technologies, which are actually available to Cities, Water Districts or Magistrates.

To be aware of the different types of water pollution is to ‘keep an eye’ on what could make water undrinkable, or even dangerous to the ecosystem and for public health; even when no one is aware of it, or no one is talking about it. Remember, even if water looks clean, it doesn't always mean that it is clean!  

Source

National Geographic Education, “What is Water Pollution” (video). In the Earth's Freshwater Educator Guide

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) tests drinking water for:

• Coliform (E-Coli)/Microbial contaminants

• Lead and Copper

• Chemical and Radiological contaminants (e.g. trichloroethane, dichloroethylene, aluminum, arsenic, asbestos, barium, calcium, chloride, endrin, fluoride, foaming agents, manganese, mercure, nitrate, nitrite, sodium, zinc among many others. For an example of what a small rural community water system in Harlan County gets tested for click here. 

To be in compliance, a water system must have regular test results produced to show the absence of these contaminants or the levels that are safe for human consumption. These test results are accessible to the public.

Since 2002, water systems have been required to report levels of Disinfection Byporducts (DBPs).

Also see, Where do I get information about the water quality of my water system?

What rules apply to testing and providing clean water?

Source

• Kentucky Infrastructure Authority, Drinking Water Branch, Water Systems in Harlan County. 

Contaminants entering Harlan County’s drinking water systems can be coming from various activities. These include:

Coal mining, logging, and industrial agriculture

• Acid mine drainage, which is a toxic combination of acidic water and heavy metals that can flow from abandoned or active mines and into streams.  

• Organic solvents, petroleum products, and heavy metals from disposal sites or storage facilities can migrate into aquifers. 

• Logging activity can lead to increased sediment and dissolved oxygen depletion. It can also change the shape of a stream.

• Pesticides and fertilizers can be carried into lakes and streams by rainfall runoff or snowmelt or can percolate into aquifers. 

Human and animal waste

• Human wastes from sewage and septic systems can carry harmful microbes into drinking water sources.

• Wastes from animal feedlots and wildlife can as well. 

• Major contaminants include Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and E. coli.

Treatment and distribution

• While treatment can remove many contaminants, it can also leave behind byproducts. These are known as “disinfection byproducts” (DBP’s), such as trihalomethanes (THMs), which may be harmful. 

• Water can also become contaminated after it enters the distribution system, from a breach in the piping system or from corrosion of plumbing materials made from lead or copper.

Polluted groundwater: when groundwater and underground aquifers are polluted with high levels of certain contaminants, then drinking water, whose source water is fed by the polluted groundwater, can be unsuitable for human and animal consumption. Groundwater can also be contaminated by surface water; as groundwater travels through rock and soil, it filters out the naturally occurring contaminants, which are present underground (e.g. iron, magnesium, etc.), making water clean and safe to drink. But, if there is surface pollution -for example heavy metals, or radionuclides- then groundwater can pick up these pollutants as they travel from the surface to underground waterways and aquifers. 

Sources

EPA, Environments and Contaminants - Drinking Water Contaminants

EPA, How EPA Regulates Drinking Water Contaminants 

EPA, Drinking Water

“Forever chemicals” could refer generally to all chemicals that persist on land or in water without breaking down. But these days, ‘forever chemicals’ refers to the chemicals commonly referred to as PFAS and PFOA. These chemicals have been used for decades in many consumer products designed for water resistance or stain resistance and many other purposes. Because they don’t adhere or stick to things (think teflon), they move easily into water. The health risks associated with these chemicals are still being discovered and evaluated. 

EPA is continuing to collect data on PFAS in sewage and sewage sludge, but only now is starting to measure and regulate these chemicals in drinking water. Monitoring for these chemicals will be expensive and using carbon filtration to treat drinking water will be very expensive (and require frequent recharge of the carbon filters). 

In addition to drinking water, there are significant concerns about PFAS in sewage sludge (also called biosolids), which is often spread on the land for disposal or to fertilize crops, and can even be made into commercial products sold at home and garden centers. 

Sources

U.S. EPA, Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).

—, Increasing Our Understanding of the Health Risks from PFAS and How to Address Them

—, Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Biosolids

—, Sewage Sludge Survey

Flooding can cause damages to water infrastructure and can make their repair difficult, hence prolonging periods that residents are without clean water. 

Besides power and water outages, flooding events may overload water systems by introducing large amounts of stormwater and wastewater into drinking water systems and water sources, contaminating community water systems and severely compromising water quality. Flooding events may be caused by storms with high winds, which further damage power lines, roofs, and trees.

Flooding poses a particular risk to private wells (i.e. decentralized water systems) as well, since these are also vulnerable to water contamination caused by the mobilization of water pollutants (e.g chemical pollutants related to industrial or intensive agricultural activities). In areas that have long legacies of resource extraction, landscapes are susceptible to destabilization, as flooding poses an increased risk of landslides and sludge slurries.  

Source

Taylor, Betsy, Shannon McNeeley, Maria Gaglia-Bareli, Laura Landes, Lena Schlichting, Deborah Thompson, Rachel Will, 2024. Water and Climate Equity in Rural Water Systems in the United States, Pacific Institute, Oakland, California.

Wastewater systems are designed to handle a certain amount of water. Extreme rain causes large additional amounts of stormwater to flow into the wastewater system,  which overwhelms the capability of the plant to treat the water. These huge sudden influxes of water cause wastewater treatment systems to become backed up leading to overflow. Typically this overflow then flows into local waterways and can contaminate surface water.

In contrast to wastewater, stormwater does not get treated.  As stormwater hits large areas of hard surface, it runs off towards gutters, through stormwater pipes, carrying directly into streams, rivers and lakes pollutants that come from extractive activities (e.g. coal mining, fracking, industrial agriculture) and failed wastewater and septic systems. Thus, stormwater may contain bacteria, chemicals, and organic matter. 

Sources

https://www.epa.gov/npdes/npdes-stormwater-program

New Zealand Water & Wastewater Association (2006). Keep it Clean. Preventing Stormwater Pollution.  

Kentucky is usually considered to be one of the most water-rich states. Nevertheless, there have been three severe drought periods in the last 30 years that have affected the state of Kentucky: 1999-2000, and 2007-2008, and 2012. There have also been shorter periods of dryness; in 2005, 2011, 2016, 2019, and 2022.

Drought impacts rural water systems in several ways, including reduced snowpack and runoff, increased chance of wildfires, reliance on groundwater and degradation and depletion of groundwater supply. Snow can be an important natural water reservoir, recharging water systems as it lays on the ground and seeps in gradually, leading to less runoff than rain. Yet, climate change models indicate a decline in the future by 20%-30% by the 2050s and 40%-60% by the 2100s. The loss of snowpack will reduce water availability for downstream communities.  

One of the most widely apparent effects of drought on water systems is the decline of water sources, including both surface water and groundwater. Low water volume can stress pumps and even lead to pumps not working. In Evarts, for example, the wildfires and high winds during a period of drought in 2023 caused pumps to stop pumping water to tanks due to electrical outages.  Low tank volume, coupled with the decline of groundwater, led to successive water advisories and made necessary the need to pump water from alternate sources. 

As the Kentucky Drought Mitigation and Response Plan outlines, there is a time-lag between lack of rain and lowering of water levels. So, by the time this is noticed, there may already have been a considerable lack of rain, and a subsequent lack of moisture in soils, which may already be impacting people, animals, and plants. Scientists have defined several types of drought to help with drought monitoring and understand their impacts. Types of drought include; 

• Meteorological: when dry weather patterns dominate an area.

• Hydrological: when low water supply becomes evident in the water system.

• Agricultural: When crops become affected by drought.

• Socio-economic: When the supply and demand of various commodities is affected by drought.

• Ecological: When natural ecosystems are affected by drought.

Depending on the duration, spread, and severity of a drought and its effects, there are five (5) levels of drought;

Level 1 Drought: Signifies that the state has officially designated a prolonged dry period as a drought.

Level 2 Drought: Indicates that drought impacts, some severe, are being observed.

Level 3 Drought: During this stage of drought it is expected that drought impacts will be widespread and severe and develop into emergencies if drought conditions are not abated.

Water Shortage Watch: Indicates a potential for water shortages to develop. The watch is intended to encourage increased awareness by water supply managers in an area and help local governments communicate the severity of a drought situation to affected customers.

Water Shortage Warning: Indicates that a critical water shortage is imminent. A warning may also be issued for an area in which one or more systems have entered the emergency phase of a local water shortage response plan.

Did you know that in September 2024 a Level 1 Drought was declared for all Kentucky counties?

Tip: the Division of Water has developed the Kentucky Drought Viewer. This is an interactive map that displays drought conditions and water shortage declarations issued by the Commonwealth of Kentucky. 

Sources 

Team Kentucky Energy and Environment Cabinet, Drought: Tracking, Monitoring and Evaluation. 

—, Kentucky Drought and Climate Conditions (story-map).

National Integrated Drought Information System, Drought Basics.

—, Current state-level drought information for Kentucky. 

Energy and Environment Cabinet, KY Drought Mitigation and Response Advisory Council (2008), Kentucky Drought Mitigation and Response Plan.

Low temperatures can freeze water in pipes causing those pipes to burst. This can cause damage to water supply and sanitation systems, cutting off access for the people served by those systems. Ice storms often cause power outages, impacting water treatment plants especially if they do not have an adequate backup generator. When water pipes are ruptured, systems can also experience pressure loss, which in turn puts the distribution system at risk of contamination, making water unsafe. Small water systems, such as the ones serving Harlan County rural communities, face greater challenges coming back online after disruptions due to extreme cold. 

Did you know that you can find in FEMA’s National Risk Index, the relative risk and annual loss of Ice Storms, the social vulnerability and the community resilience of your county, or area when compared to the rest of the United States? To explore FEMA’s National Risk Index Map, click here.

Sources

Pacific Institute and DigDeep (2024). Climate Change Impacts to Water and Sanitation for Frontline Communities in the United States: Water, Sanitation, and Climate Change in the US Series, Part 1. Pacific Institute, Oakland, CA.

Taylor, Betsy, et al (2024). Water and Climate Equity in Rural Water Systems in the United States, Pacific Institute, Oakland, California.

The U.S. is experiencing increasing frequency, duration and magnitude of heatwaves. Average annual temperatures have risen in the contiguous United States by almost 2.5 degrees Fahrenheit since 1970. Extreme heat events  impact rural water systems and water quality in several ways. For example, extreme heat can contribute to blue-green algal blooms (or harmful algal blooms,  HAB), endangering drinking water quality and making it unsafe for people to come into contact with water bodies for recreation. 

Extreme heat is often accompanied by drought, and can also increase demand for water, worsening water sufficiency problems created by long periods of drought. Or, coupled with long legacies of environmental and economic injustices, extreme heat waves can cause disproportionate health impacts to regions and populations already experiencing water inequalities; that is, unequal access to clean, safe and affordable water. Think about the risk that a person experiencing homelessness runs to dehydrate or get a heat-related illness. 

See also, What if the water in a lake or reservoir looks green or blue?

Source

Taylor, Betsy, et all (2024). Water and Climate Equity in Rural Water Systems in the United States, Pacific Institute, Oakland, California.

Drought, especially when combined with higher temperatures and high winds, contributes to increased wildfire danger. As flammability caused by prolonged periods of drought is increased, the risk of wildfires also increases. Wildfires can have adverse effects on water quality and your community water system. For example, a wildfire can melt and rupture water pipes and meters. It can also damage water intake systems, or water treatment systems. 

Wildfires can make drinking water unsafe. Soil erosion and landslides that usually follow a fire cause pollution to water bodies (e.g. rivers and reservoirs), wells and springs located downstream of fire-impacted forested land. Affected water bodies become more concentrated in solids, nutrients, heavy metals, and harmful algae blooms.  Affected wells and springs usually face a much slower recovery process. 

See also, How do public wastewater systems treat sewage?

Sources

Pacific Institute and DigDeep (2024). Climate Change Impacts to Water and Sanitation for Frontline Communities in the United States: Water, Sanitation, and Climate Change in the United States, Part 1. 

Taylor, Betsy, et all (2024). Water and Climate Equity in Rural Water Systems in the United States, Pacific Institute, Oakland, California.

There are many things to be learned about how water pollution interacts with the always changing climate, or what the effects are of the human-made acceleration of this change. Floodwaters and wildfires can add toxic chemicals into the water supply. With the evaporation of water in extreme heat events and wildfires, chemicals already in the water supply may be concentrated. Raised surface water temperatures from extreme heat and drought may cause a die-off of sensitive wildlife species and contribute to algal blooms, which further decrease available oxygen in the water.

Yet, it is certain that the coupling between water pollution and extreme weather events, or other slow occurring water disasters, can have a variety of serious consequences. These consequences can range from a short-term epidemic, to disrupting food chains, and harming the health or even threatening all pollutant-exposed life, human and non-human alike.