On the Rebound: A Tale of White–Tailed Deer in Kentucky

A family of deer standing in snow in West Virginia in April 2011. Photo by ForestWander.

Introduction : From 300 Thousand to 30 Million Deer

White–Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are a common sight across Kentucky, being prevalent in both open fields and dense forests. They are widely hunted both for their meat and as trophies. Their population is great enough that, despite their value, they can ‌be a nuisance, with heavy browsing of crops, vehicle collisions, and rampant diseases. This huge population, though, has not always been present, and is in fact a recovery from near-extinction at one point.

When European settlers first arrived in North America, they found an abundance of wildlife. Kentucky was no exception, with dozens of “long hunters” storming the territory well before it was a state. Like Indigenous people for centuries before them, they were drawn to Kentucky for hunting. Ironically, though, the abundant deer fueled myths of Kentucky being an empty land, even despite fierce competition for both game and land with Indigenous peoples, especially the Shawnee and Cherokee, throughout the long hunters’ time because of shared pull factors into the region (Kentucky Heritage Council). Among the abundance of wildlife species present were huge numbers of white–tailed deer, with populations estimated to have been as high as 62 million (Hanberry and Hanberry, 2020).

An image from famed hunter William T. Hornaday's The American Natural History: A Foundation of Useful Knowledge of the Higher Animals of North America, Volume II (1914). Text around the image reads, "At this date deer-hunting is not permitted at any time in Indiana, Illinois, lowa, Nebraska, and Kansas—where there are no wild deer; or in Rhode Island, Conneticut, Delaware, Tennessee, or Kentucky [where populations still remain]." Click this link to read the original book that this image was downloaded from!

By the 1800s, unregulated over-hunting had reduced this population to 12 million, and by 1900, because of an increase in commercial hunting practices, as few as 300,000 white–tails remained, and the deer had vanished from much of their historical range. By the year 2000, though, things had changed. The passage of the federal Lacey Act created regulations for the trade of illegally harvested wildlife, and penalties for violating these regulations. This effectively destroyed the commercial hunting trade, which was already facing challenges after decades of uncontrolled harvest. Because of such regulations put in place by both federal and state wildlife management agencies, as well as aggressive reintroduction and management efforts, this deer population had rebounded to an estimated 30 million deer (New Hampshire Fish and Game Department), and again are a widely–hunted game species.

Odocoileus virginianus, commonly called the white–tailed deer, is an ungulate in the family Cervidae. It is an extremely widespread species, ranging over most of eastern and central North America, and as far south as the northern reaches of South America. In recent decades, warming temperatures have even allowed them to expand their range farther north, into boreal forests (Dawe and Boutin, 2016). They feed by browsing on a wide variety of plant life, from the herbaceous plants and flowers, to the leaves and stems of woody plants and trees, to seeds and nuts such as acorns. This browsing practice can have negative impacts on agriculture, as deer do not distinguish between wild plants and domestic ones (UK Forestry). This only helped to make them the perfect prey then, and with the rebounded population of the present, it is a returning issue.

Modern Harvesting: White–Tailed Deer Seasons of Today and Tomorrow

Presently, white–tailed deer are a widely hunted game species across most of their range. They are primarily hunted for their meat as well as for trophies. In Kentucky alone, during the 2024–2025 deer season, 149,868 were harvested (KDWFR Harvest Report). Deer hunting season in Kentucky begins in early fall, usually early September, and lasts through winter, typically ending in early January. That larger yearly season breaks down into several smaller, weapon–specific ones: archery season is the longest going from early September to the middle of January; crossbow season also runs from September to January but with a slightly shorter window; modern firearm season lasts around two weeks in November; and muzzleloader season comes first for a weekend in October and again for just over a week in December (KDFWR). For more detailed information on season dates, as well as rules and regulations surrounding deer hunting in Kentucky, visit the Kentucky Departments of Fish and Wildlife Resources web page about deer hunting.

For those who want to attract deer to their properties for hunting season, there are some habitat management factors that need to be considered. First, you should consider the plant communities on their property, as this helps determine the cover (shelter from predators and adverse weather) available to deer. Is it largely forested, largely open ground, or a mixture of both? What tree and plant species are present on site, and what condition are they in? Answering these questions can help determine what kind of cover and forage is available to deer on the property, and how appealing they would be (Purdue Forestry).

It is important to provide for a deer's habitat needs on a year–round basis, as they are more likely to remain within an area longer if all their needs are met year–round, rather than just for a season. If you own property that is completely forested, with a thick canopy, then implementing a Forest Stand Improvement, or FSI (also called a Timber Stand Improvement or TSI), could help introduce more light by eliminating less desirable or unhealthy trees, while encouraging the growth of more desirable tree and plant species like oaks, blackberries, and other mast producing plants. The creation of early successional habitats, such as fields and forest openings, can provide deer with both an abundance of food and cover. 

For more detailed on–site help, you can contact your local private lands biologist, who is often available for free through your state's wildlife agency. They can provide technical advice, and organizations like the Livelihoods Knowledge Exchange Network (LiKEN) can help you learn about and navigate the federal cost–share opportunities available in the region. These opportunities include the USDA's Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) for new conservation practices and the Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP) for expanding on existing efforts. For help in choosing among these programs, and for more information about forest management, visit LiKEN’s Community Wealth page here.

Failing from Too Much Success: CWD and HD in Modern White–Tailed Deer

A deer visibly showing signs of CWD in Wyoming, where it is much more common, in 2000. Photo by Terry Kreeger.

While the recovery of white–tail from the brink of extinction is undoubtedly a good thing, it hasn’t come without consequences. Chief among these is the rising prevalence of disease among deer populations, and there are several diseases that are commonly associated with deer that hunters should be aware of. The most well known of these are hemorrhagic diseases (HDs), commonly called “blue tongue,” and Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD). Hemorrhagic diseases are caused by viruses, typically the bluetongue virus or the epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (KDFWR). These diseases are spread to deer through biting midges (small flying insects), whose populations rise in summer and fall off as temperatures begin to drop. Symptoms can vary, but include swelling of the head, neck and tongue, difficulty breathing, depression, and fever. Fever can lead the infected deer to drinking water, in an attempt to cool themselves; as a result, many deer who die from HD are found near, or even in, streams and ponds. 

Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) is a neurological disease found in many members of the cervid family. It is caused by misfolded proteins called prions, similar to mad cow disease, and is always fatal to infected deer. It is spread through the bodily fluids of infected deer, such as saliva, blood and urine, either through direct deer-to-deer contact, or indirect contact with these fluids in the environment. Once the prions from these fluids are introduced to soil and water sources, they can remain there for years (US CDC). Symptoms include weight loss, drooling, drooping ears, loss of coordination, and a lack of fear of humans.

A CWD sampling station in Stearns County, Minnesota. To date, this disease is far more common in the northwest than southeast, but it is appearing in Kentucky more frequently. Photo by Tony Webster.

Monitoring and testing for CWD is a major concern for many state fish and wildlife agencies, as if left unchecked it could spread further and have a lasting impact on deer populations. As of 2024, it has been detected in 34 US states. In Kentucky, a wild deer killed by a hunter in Ballard County was found to be infected, and in Breckinridge County a number of captive deer were found to have died from CWD (KDFWR). A second wild case was detected in Pulaski County in October 2025. Kentucky’s CWD response plan includes a surveillance zone, which includes the counties of Ballard, Breckinridge, Calloway, Carlisle, Fulton, Graves, Hardin, Henderson, Hickman, Marshall, McCracken, Meade, Union, and Webster (KDFWR). These counties have additional regulations for deer hunting, including a requirement that all deer harvested in these counties are sampled for CWD. In counties outside the surveillance zone, locations may be set up for hunters to drop off the heads of harvested deer for voluntary sampling, and biologists often take samples from road–killed deer to test them for CWD. While there is currently no evidence that humans can contract CWD, caution should still be taken with animals that are found to carry the disease. 

The recovery of America's White–tailed deer population—from being lost in much of its historic range, to flourishing to the point of nuisance—is a remarkable illustration of the importance of regulation and enforcement practices, and is a victory for conservation efforts. This recovery has not come without issues, such as the prevalence of disease among populations and the impacts they can have on crops. Keeping these factors in mind while managing them through disease monitoring and forest management practices can help ensure that people continue enjoying their interactions with deer, whether that be through hunting or simple observation.